Nursing Shortage Essay

Abstract Compelling evidence suggests that regions of the United States face a nursing and physician shortage that our legislators, health officials, and medical professionals must address. To ensure that quality medical care is not harshly impacted, the hospitals and public health leadership, in general, will need to tackle the nursing shortage with solid long-term solutions. It is no secret that the United States faces a critical nursing shortage, a trend that potentially threatens to undermine quality medical care. One single area of concern does not affect the shortage. In fact, the hospitals, and nursing in particular, are witnessing a combination of problems that range in salary structure, medical economics/cost containment, post-graduate education, and an aging workforce (pending retirements of baby-boomers). The public health industry is not sitting idly by to address the shortage. It is critically reviewing the needs for both existing professions. Definition of Nursing Shortage Nursing shortage is defined as the inadequate number of qualified nurses to meet the projected demand for nursing care within a healthcare setting, where the demand for nurses is greater than the supply. History of Nursing Shortage Historical knowledge is important to analyze the present and prepare for the future. As we can see from the current shortage in America today, we learn that it is not a new problem. However what makes this current nursing shortage situation unique is that the causes are related to a multifaceted range of issues. The current nursing shortage is connected to supply and demand factors, demographic changes, population growth, and fewer students enrolling in nursing schools, RNs who are retiring or leaving the workforce and a growth in the baby boom population who will demand more healthcare services in the near future. These factors are occurring while many nurses are retiring and more jobs are being created. In addition, the nursing shortage is actually a worldwide phenomenon with areas like Western Europe, Australia, Canada and the Philippines facing shortages as well. Economic factors have also contributed to the nursing shortage in the United States. Mark Genovese, spokesperson for the New York State Nurses Association explains, â€Å"For many decades the shortage was cyclical but as the economy tightened and as the insurance industry moved to a managed care model, there was less money in the system and hospitals had less money to work with and tighter budgets.† Budgetary limitations affected the nursing workforce as many nurses began leaving the profession altogether. â€Å"They were forcing RNs to do more with less, handle more patients and work more hours. RNs started to leave the workforce because of the working conditions and fewer RNs entered the system,† explains Mark. Americans are also demanding more quality healthcare services while many RNs are retiring, further exacerbating the problem. The HRSA has stated: â€Å"to meet the projected growth in demand for RN services, the U.S. must graduate approximately 90% more nurses from U.S. nursing programs.† Decreased staffing means that there are fewer nurses to work with patients. This impacts job satisfaction and causes work related stress. In some cases it has led to many nurses leaving the profession altogether. A 2010 study published in Health Services Research found that over 75% of RNs feel that the nursing shortage is a huge problem that affects their quality of work as well as patient care and the amount of time that nurses can spend with individual patients. Another important factor contributing to a lack of nurses is that there is a shortage of nursing school faculty to train a new generation of nurses in colleges and universities. The AACN’s 2008-2009 Enrollment and Graduations in Baccalaureate and Graduate Programs in Nursing report found that nursing programs in the U.S. did not enroll 49,948 qualified students into their bachelor and graduate degree programs because they did not have an adequate number of faculty, clinical practice sites, teaching space, and were constrained by budgetary limitations. Two thirds of the nursing program respondents reported that a big reason for not accepting students was due to not having enough nurse faculty on hand. The Southern Regional Board of Education conducted a study which found that the nursing faculty shortage in 16 states was caused by vacant faculty positions, retirements, resignations and a shortage of new candidates applying for faculty positions. Shortages like this pose a threat to the availability of nurse education. Defining the Problem For those students interested in careers in healthcare, becoming a nurse right now could be the best decision for you. Currently, the United States is facing a severe nursing shortage. For several reasons, the number of nurses graduating and entering the workforce, and those already in the profession, is not enough to fill the growing demand. Currently, RNs are the largest group of healthcare workers in the US at roughly 2.6 million and that still isn’t enough to meet the need. According to experts, by 2012, there could be around 1.1 million unfilled nursing positions in the United States. In the most basic sense, the current global nursing shortage is simply a widespread and dangerous lack of skilled nurses who are needed to care for individual patients and the population as a whole. The work of the world’s estimated 12 million nurses is not well understood, even by educated members of society. But nursing is a distinct scientific field and autonomous profession whose skilled practitioners save lives and improve patient outcomes every day in a wide variety of settings. In the Truth’s view, the vast gap between what skilled nurses really do and what the public thinks they do is a fundamental factor underlying most of the more immediate apparent causes of the shortage. These causes include nurse short-staffing (due to inadequate pay and long work hours), poor work conditions, the aging nursing workforce, expanded career options for women, nursing’s predominantly female nature, the increasing complexity of health care and care technology, and the rapidly aging populations in developed nations, to name a few. Other causes of the nursing shortage episode include: the aging baby boomer population and lack of employee incentives. There were seventy-six million Americans born between 1946 and 1964 and are now classified the Baby Boomer Generation. As this population reaches retirement age and beyond, they are requiring more medical treatments and nursing home and long term care facilities. This country is also seeing an increase in population in general, projected to grow 18% over the next two decades. With more patients flooding the healthcare system, there simply aren’t enough nurses to meet this growing need. However, those currently employed in the nursing field should be rewarded for being encouraged and motivated to stay in such a questionable field of employment. In light of this nursing shortage, it should be relatively easy to find gainful employment after graduation should you choose to study nursing. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), more than 581,000 new Registered Nurse (RN) positions will be created through 2018, which will increase that workforce by an astounding 22%. The BLS also estimates that even as other sectors of our economy continue to suffer, the healthcare sector will only continue to grow. Since the recession began, more than 600,000 positions have been created in the healthcare industry. With so many Americans out of work in other fields, a career in healthcare, specifically in nursing, might be a viable career choice. Literature Review Today, the average age of nursing faculty in baccalaureate and graduate degree programs is 51.5 years and the rate of projected retirements will exceed the rate of re placements. Nurses enter the faculty role later in their careers and typically retire at an earlier age, around 62.5 years. More efforts need to be put into place to encourage those already teaching to remain in their positions even if it is in a limited capacity while future faculty are educated. What factors are present that facilitate the desire for nursing faculty to retire? Kowalski, Dalley, and Weigand (2006) conducted a cross-sectional, randomized study of 129 nurse educators teaching in 61 schools of nursing to find out what personal decisions influenced their retirement plans. With a 37.6% response rate, results reflected that the mean age of planned retirement was 64.4 years. However, the mean age respondents would like to retire was 62.4. Factors influencing retirement included workplace issues, personal and family health, attitudes about retirement, and financial security. One of the most important factors influencing retirement plans was financial security. Faculty members who were financially secure retired earlier. Job satisfaction was another important influencing factor resulting in early retirement. In lieu of the faculty shortage, the authors contend that studies such as this will offer insight into future retirement trends which may help bridge the gap between supply and the demand of nurse educators (Kowalski et al., 2006). From the results of this one study it may be important to consider the needs of the aging faculty by providing healthy, satisfying, and stimulating work environments, appropriate benefits packages, and relaxing mandatory retirement ages. One serious factor contributing to the faculty shortage is financial. Not only are academic salaries much lower than they are for clinical practice and administrative positions of advanced practice nurses, but the cost of securing advanced academic degrees is costly. In 2004, the average salary of a master’s-prepared nurse practitioner in a clinical setting was $80,697 compared to $60,831 for that of a master’s-prepared nursing faculty member (Nevada Nurses Association, 2004). By increasing academic salaries and providing tuition allowances in return for teaching will indeed make teaching a more attractive career choice (Yordy, 2006). Another important factor affecting the faculty shortage is that of job satisfaction, stress, and burnout. To maintain current faculty on the job, more research should be conducted on factors affecting job satisfaction and what works to provide a better environment. Gormley (2003) performed a meta-analysis study on nursing faculty job satisfaction and which factors had the greatest influence using a sample of six studies from 1976 and 1996. Nursing faculty are pressured not only to educate future nurses to provide safe and competent care, but also have many other professional responsibilities, such as publishing, conducting research, writing grants, performing community service, and maintaining their own competencies (Gormley, 2003). These responsibilities combined can become overwhelming and lead to job dissatisfaction especially as the faculty is aging. In Gormley’s study (2003), factors that affected job satisfaction were perception/expectation of the leader’s role in curriculum and instruction, suggesting that the dean’s role has significant effects on faculty’s job satisfaction and role conflict/ambiguity. Shirey (2006) argues that prolonged stress can lead to burn-out in many faculty who then become â€Å"deadwood,† jeopardizing the quality and spirit of the institution. These faculty members can ward off potential new faculty who are even more vulnerable to the stresses of the teaching role. It is imperative that academic institutions pay close attention to the needs of their faculty. Mentoring programs, self-renewal, and organizational engagement are key strategies to prevent burnout (Shirey, 2006). â€Å"A carefully structured and deliberate mentoring program can be an invaluable orientation as schools of nursing seek to provide an academic environment that is conducive to the professional and scholarly development of adjunct faculty members† (Peters & Boylston, 2006, p. 64). One serious factor contributing to the faculty shortage is financial. Not only are academic salaries much lower than they are for clinical practice and administrative positions of advanced practice nurses, but the cost of securing advanced academic degrees is costly. In 2004, the average salary of a master’s-prepared nurse practitioner in a clinical setting was $80,697 compared to $60,831 for that of a master’s-prepared nursing faculty member (Nevada Nurses Association, 2004). By increasing academic salaries and providing tuition allowances in return for teaching will indeed make teaching a more attractive career choice (Yordy, 2006). Program Analysis Possible Solutions For sustained change and assurance of evading the forthcoming shortage, solutions must be developed in several areas: education, health care systems, policy and regulations, and image. This shortage is not exclusively a nursing issue, but will require a collaborative effort among nursing leaders, practitioners, health care executives, government, and the media. Creating Cultures of Retention The American Nurses Association Magnet hospital program has had a proven success in raising the standards of nursing practice and improving patient outcomes. Currently there are 85 organizations that are designated Magnet hospitals. Magnet facilities are characterized by strong administrative support, adequate nurse staffing, strong communication, nurse autonomy, better control, and a vital focus on the patient and their family. A growing body of research indicates that this program is making a positive difference for nurses, patients, and the hospitals as a whole. Research is proving that through this program, nurses are having increased satisfaction as well as increased perceptions of productivity and the quality of care given. Studies also indicate that these facilities have lower incidence of needle stick injuries, lower burn out rates, and double the retention of non-Magnet facilities. By adopting the characteristics of Magnet hospitals, facilities will be able to create a culture of retention that empowers and is respectful of nursing staff. Strengthening the Infrastructure In 2002 the Nursing Reinvestment Act was signed by President Bush to address the problem of our nation’s nursing shortage. This initiative was intended to promote people to enter and remain in nursing careers, thus reducing the growing shortage. The law establishes scholarships, loan repayments, public service announcements, retention grants, career ladders, and grants for nursing faculty. Many statewide initiatives are underway to address this issue as well. In Pennsylvania, six new nursing education initiatives have been announced to address faculty shortage by encouraging current nurses to return to school, earn graduate degrees, and teach the next generation of nurses. Illinois is unveiling a plan to provide faculty scholarships and grants to nursing schools in order to expand student enrollment. California, whose nursing programs currently have wait lists over three years, is trying to expand nursing education through a $90 million initiative.

Globalisation and the Nation-State

Emerging nations such as China and India have also allowed companies to reduce production costs and target wider developing consumers. With these opportunities and with many of the other opportunities surrounding globalization economics now look at the economy on a lobar scale as opposed to a national scale which has led to conflicting perspectives on the use of the nation-state.As early as 1969 economics such as Charles Kindergà ¤rtner sparked the perspective that â€Å"the nation state Is Just about through as an economic unit† (Eagleburger 1969: 207) The following essay will look at globalization in terms of the economy and look at two of these businesses currently operating globally to see if the role of the individual nation-state government remains vital despite the trend towards globalization. Firstly one must define what libations actually Is and what type of organizations qualifies as a ‘global company.Researchers suggest that globalization is ‘one of the most misused and one of the most confused words around today (Dickens, 2007). Globalization is a widely used term that has no simple definition; Instead researchers suggest that the word has become a ‘convenient summary term' used by many to ‘bundle together virtually all the goods and bad facing contemporary societies' (Dickens, 2007). There is one definition that most globalizes will agree upon and that's that it is a â€Å"process by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and Ideas, Is becoming standardized around the world. In terms of the economic globalization that essay will be concentrating on, â€Å"Globalization Is a level of economic activity that has outgrown national markets through industrial combinations and commercial groupings that cross national frontiers, and international agreements that allow businesses to operate Internationally† (Hirsh, 1996) Lloyd TTS Is one company that can be defined as a global or ganization. Lloyd TTS Is an International bank that's part of Lloyd banking group. Its head office is in London and it originated in 1745 as a personal banking service with one single office in Birmingham.In the 1 sass Lloyd began to expand offices through Europe, India and South America. In the late sass's Lloyd acquired other International businesses and soon had hundreds of offices in over 50 different countries. McDonald's is a fast food restaurant. It was formed in 1948 in California and is currently the largest fast food restaurant In the world. It currently has 31,000 restaurants in 118 countries. Macdonald has become global as more than 75% of McDonald's restaurants relied are owned as a franchise.Both companies are huge global companies that are as successful as they are as they view the world as one place and not in terms of nation-state governments. Although both companies are similar In the sense that they operate globally they are both very different organizations. Lloy d TTS began in the UK and have bought other companies and diversified to gain its global recognition. McDonald's however, 1 OFF operates In ten T sector Ana stall manly operates alertly In ten A It galena global standing by franchising the brand and the products across the worldThere are also other key differences between the companies. As well as operating in different economic sectors, Researchers suggest that although both organizations operate as transnational organizations their global operations are completely different. Lloyd TTS is a ‘global organization' as its overseas operations are delivery of the same service to Just different consumers, whilst the same researchers would describe McDonald's as a ‘Multinational Organization' as it views much of its overseas operations as a portfolio of independently run businesses (Bartlett, 2000)On both Lloyd TTS and McDonald's there are major influences affecting them as they operate in the globalizes economy. Globalization and international companies arriving in individual national-states have always been met with a mixture of positive and negative opinions due to the instant challenge it brings to the uses and the very existence of the nation-state. There are currently 194 individual nation-states in the world (Rosenberg, 2009). Each state has its own common culture and has its own way of governing its state.With new technologies, transportation and communications and the fact that organizations are now creating a standardized way of living it can be assumed that the power and control once held by the nation-state is being severely reduced. Due to the claims by theorists such as Kindergà ¤rtner (1969) there has been much debate sparked into the existence of the nation-state and the uses of globalization. In the globalization debate there are three conflicting perspectives on the uses of the nation-state.The first perspective is that of the Hyper-Globalizes, who argue that we live in a borderless wo rld and the nation- state is no longer relevant. The Hyper- Globalizes view globalization as a new development and suggest that the world's cultures and experiences are becoming homogeneous through standardized global products. The second opinion is the ‘Skeptical Internationalists' who accept that globalization exists however believe that it's not new and the grounding globalizes who believe that quantitative date is Just as important as qualitative date in the debate.According to Dickens (2007:IPPP) the roles of the nation-state in the contemporary global economy has four key roles; containers of institutions and cultures, regulators of economic activities, competitors with other states and elaborators with other states and when globalization intrudes these roles its often met with a degree of negativity Lloyd TTS and McDonald's are diversifying into these individual nation-states and as a result are sometimes met with this negativity and political concern targeted towards t he hyper-globalizes perspective.These companies and most of the companies that are isolating are often from Western dominated economies and arrive with western values and cultural interests. Hilton (1998) suggests that one of the main negative impacts on these organizations and libations in general is that they are incorporating third world and developing economies into the global economy only as ‘passive consumers of standardized products and nothing more' suggesting that although these companies are operating globally the economic wealth and growth still lives within its original national economy which widens the gap between the rich and poor countries.Omaha (1995) considers the ‘standardization of culture' as a negative impact on globalization. These Uninominal nation-states Tanat companies Like Lloyd Dank Ana c an ass are penetrating have individual cultural values and beliefs. Both companies are bringing their Western cultural values into these individual nations an d creating a standardized culture within. McDonald's for example has a very western cultural style to its food, items on its menu such as ‘French fries' and ‘hamburgers' are very much western orientated foods.The very way in which McDonald's delivers its food in fast food restaurants, through American style diners and drive trough's again reflect the western cultural values which are now being adapted and ‘standardized' around the world. Omaha (1995) suggests that these changes can be seen as negative impacts and are seen as a challenge to the importance and use of a nation-state if the world is starting to live in a standardized way.There are many negative opinions in the role of the nation-state debate and evidence to suggest that we are beginning to live in a homogeneity environment however, there have been many recent events that have shown that despite the trend to globalization the nation-state is still vital and that we do not live in a homogeneity world. On e recent event that's affected nearly everyone is the global recession or the ‘Credit Crunch' the world is currently experiencing.The Credit Crunch can be defined as â€Å"a severe shortage of money or credit† (BBC, BBC NEWS, 2009) and is caused by banks not lending out money. Lloyd TTS is one of many financial institutions affected in the credit crunch due to the very nature of the business and the fact that deregulation in the global financial economy allowed banks to lend money in insecure ‘lax' borrowers, especially in the American mortgage economy Where billions of dollars was invested into mortgages made available to sub-prime borrowers (people with bad credit rating, no Jobs, no repayment amounts) at a low interest rate.When interest rates started to increase people began to default on borrowings which meant the value of these investments plummeted resulting in huge losses for banks globally (Badmouth, 2009), including Lloyd TTS. As a result of this lax len ding Lloyd and many other global banks were forced to write off millions of pounds of debts. Lloyd were ‘left 250 million short' (BBC 2007) which left them at a huge loss and unconfined to lend out more money. As a result of the financial difficulties Lloyd were forced to make over two thousand people redundant and were left to turn to the nation-state for help.In terms of the nation-sate debate it's evident in economic downturns such as the global ‘credit crunch' and the current recession the nation-state is vital for companies such as Lloyd to survive. The British government used tax-payers funds to ‘bail' out the bank by supplying them with over a billion pounds worth of investment. McDonald's, operating in a completely different economic sector completely survived the economic downturn as people looked to them for a cheap source of food and drink.McDonald's made a profit through the economic downturn and look set to do the same this year (McDonald's. Com 2009). Further to the debate that we do not live in a homogeneity world is the fact that states regulate trade, foreign investment and industry and each state takes an individual stance on how they do this. Policies towards imports and exports are individual in every state and McDonald's and Lloyd TTS have to comply with these policies in each individual state.

Load Shedding in Nepal

Load shedding, which has been a part of Nepalese society from the last one decade and has pushed Nepal in the Stone Age in this era of modern Science and Technology, which is the great problem for the developing country like Nepal. Load shedding simply means the interruption in the electricity due to the overload or demand of electricity and disableness of the plant to produce desire amount of the electricity, which is very common in Nepal.Everyone in Nepal is very much familiar with this great problem of the modern Nepal. It is very simple to cut off the flow of electricity from the distribution station but in other hand it is very much difficult to grasp the loss in the economic field as well as other field in that small period of load-shedding. First, it affects the investors who have invested their property in the industries and after then the customers and finally the economy of the whole Nepal.Just the minute of interruption in the electricity, effects badly the production of g oods in the industries and the economy of that industries and finally it brings the deduction of tax which company have to pay to government and then if the government does not get tax from the industries which are the main source of economy for a country, how it will develop the country which requires the enormous budget . In other hand it has also created the unemployment in the state as most of the industries are going to close due to the load shedding of Nepal from which day by day enormous number of workers are being deprived from their job .Besides these, it has made the life very miserable in the country as in this era of Modern Science and Technology ,most of our works depends upon the electrical equipment ,which cannot be operated without the electricity. In addition to this, it has made people lazy as due to the cutoff of electricity, many people who do work on the electricity do not have anything to do as there almost 16 hours of daily load-shedding in Nepal .It also have effected very much in the sector of education as for the advance education system, we have to use the presentation which is not possible without our great servant, electricity, due to which students has problem in understanding the difficult lessons and develop correct concept which they have to use in their future as they have to develop the nation and world but if they do not have excellent concept ,how will they be able to develop the nation and world with the equipments that will made our lifestyle easy and comfortable .For this also, load-shedding will also affect the future of Nepal as currently Nepal is suffering from the disaster of load-shedding. Load-shedding also has a great role in the increment of population as due to the load-shedding, people are free from work and stay leisurely which make them sexually excited. Hence the population increases consciously or unconsciously. This will also finally effect the people of Nepal as their may arise the problems of starvation, shelter problem, and other facilities as the land is limited and cannot give the support beyond its capacity.Beyond this, there may arise the war between the people for the survival as there would be scarcity of everything and will be great difficulties to achieve the essential requirements for the survival due to which there may begin the war. In addition, malnutrition that will occur due to starvation will degrade the quality of mind of upcoming generation and they will not be able to analyze the situation in their life carefully, which is the most important for the success of life.Hence they would not be able to do anything easily and smoothly, as the administration requires the knowledge. Hence the load-shedding has made the future of Nepal dark. It is the common problem for the all the Nepalese so; it cannot be controlled or eradicated by the effort of only one person. All the people should work with hand in hand and help each other. Like all the people should use less electri city consuming equipments and should with care and should not be use when not needed.Moreover people should invest on hydroelectricity project, which has great potentiality in Nepal, and avoid the leakage of electricity. The bribery must be stopped and the users must implement fair use policy. Besides this, the water resources like rivers, streams, etc should be kept clean. A forestation must be carried out for the as well as ecosystem should be kept balanced.

Cinematic Piracy in China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cinematic Piracy in China - Essay Example Reports indicate that there is minimal understanding and respect for intellectual property. This paper will discuss why cinematic piracy has become son rampant in China and present the alarming statistics at which this vice is talking place. Cinematic piracy involves the reproduction of any cinematic intellectual property without paying any returns to the producers. The vice involves both the act of production and buying counterfeit copies (Larkin, 2004). The pirated video compact discs (VCDs) and DVDs enter the distribution channels in China retailing at very low prices. It is surprising that, Hollywood movies appear in counterfeited forms in China streets, before their official launch into theatres. In other cases, the circulation of pirated movies in China begins a few days after the premier entry into theatres. Some cinematic pirates often make use of hand-held videos in theatres during a movie premier to capture the entire movie. These offenders then proceed to make copies in As ia, and in a few days, they gain entry into the market. Other copyright offenders rely on quality screeners in order to produce copies of Hollywood movies. Sometimes the copies come out in a quality that is easily confused with the original. With the increasing use of internet in the globe, it becomes easy to share cinematic intellectual property files in digital form (Pang, 2006). Background statistics of Cinematic Piracy Cinematic piracy is very rampant in china and prevailed for a long time. Traditional piracy involved making copies of movies and retailing them at much cheaper prices in the Chinese market. The Chinese government failed to intervene into the matter that was causing Chinese movie industries immense losses. By 2000, pirated material consisted of 94 % of movies retailing in China. With the emergence of new form of digital piracy, China has registered higher rates of cinematic piracy with an increasing population connected to the internet and sharing files. In 2003, Chinas’ sale of licensed movies accounted to only 17.7 % while the industry was making profits in billions. This gap between the total sales of movies and the total sales of licensed movies and films represents a large percentage of the existing pirated cinematic work. Further statistics indicate that the production capacity is much higher than the sales made presents the gross rate at which China indulges in piracy of intellectual property. In 2005, the profits from copyright piracy were in USD 200 billion USD. It is worth noting that in 2008, the piracy rate registered a 10% drop. However, despite the drop, China remains at the top of the vice of piracy globally (Liang, 2011). According to Pang (2004), the prevalence of piracy in China in alarming rates has negative implications on the Chinese copyright laws. It is worth noting that China restricts the entry of film work from foreign publishers. As a result, the Chinese law did not protect any intellectual property that gained entry into China without its knowledge. That clause in the Chinese copyright law contributed to the high rates of pirated cinematic works in China for a very long time. However, the world trade organization (WTO) pushed China to amend its copyright laws. WTO made claims that the mentioned clause allowed China to engage in copyright offenses without any action. Pirated material was circulating freely in China but the copyr ight owners could do nothing about it

Argentinas Foreign Debt Restructuring Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Argentinas Foreign Debt Restructuring - Essay Example Conversely, the "legal" definition of foreign debt is debt issued according to foreign (New York, UK, et cetera) law, regardless of whether it is in local or foreign currency and regardless of who, foreign or domestic resident, is holding these claims." Debt Renegotiation - a Background: Argentina bogged down by its mounting external debts decided to settle all the foreign currency public debt by replacing the debts with new securities calculating at the rate of 35 cents per every dollar of debt. The government also decided to repudiate all the past interest due on those debts. The government also announced that those bondholders who do accept the government's proposal by the deadline will not be paid anything. Though the announcement of the settlement of the debts in this way is criticized vehemently by the bondholders the government announced that by the deadline more than 75 percent of the country's creditors accepted the proposal. However the Institute of International Finance observed that such an aggressive conduct by the government of Argentina was sure to affect its long term economic growth and stability. The Institute also commented on the lack of progress on the implementation of the structural reforms to boost the economic development. Debt Management of the Governments: It so happens in most of the countries the government becomes the largest single borrower of the country. The effectiveness of the debt management largely influences the development of the domestic capital market. The debt management also reflects on the fiscal policies of the country and the spread of the respective countries government bonds in the US and other treasuries world over by affecting the market prices and tradability of the bonds. The... The government also announced that those bondholders who do accept the government’s proposal by the deadline will not be paid anything. Though the announcement of the settlement of the debts in this way is criticized vehemently by the bondholders the government announced that by the deadline more than 75 percent of the country’s creditors accepted the proposal. However the Institute of International Finance observed that such an aggressive conduct by the government of Argentina was sure to affect its long term economic growth and stability. The Institute also commented on the lack of progress on the implementation of the structural reforms to boost the economic development. Debt Management of the Governments: It so happens in most of the countries the government becomes the largest single borrower of the country. The effectiveness of the debt management largely influences the development of the domestic capital market. The debt management also reflects on the fiscal policies of the country and the spread of the respective countries government bonds in the US and other treasuries world over by affecting the market prices and tradability of the bonds. The debt management policies of the government will have a strategic implication on the growth and development of the economy as a whole. A good debt management of any country should reflect in the reduction of the borrowing costs, greater access to the capital markets of international standing.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 10

Business Ethics - Essay Example The most common conflicts that arise in any organization is the inter and intra group conflicts. They may involve individuals or the whole company or sometimes the management. The differences that arise between the two employees can result from the difference in their approaches towards the work and environment in which they come across. As they both have different personalities, attitudes and also different families, their objective or vision may differ from the objective of the company or from the management under which they are working (Srinivasan). Apart from that, these conflicts can be developed between the two teams or groups of an organization. These conflicts arise when one of the teams feels differently about the other. Sometimes the member of any group raises some issues about another group or team. On this basis, rather to stay in his team and work, he prefers to leave it due to inter and intra group conflict. According to the survey conducted by Kathleen Cox, B. PhD, RN, intra group conflicts severely affect the functioning of the employees. It has the negative effect over the performances of team as well as on individuals. According to her research, it is important for the management to build an administration that can work to overcome the agitated environment of the company while maintaining the significance of team working (Cox). The culture and diversity in an organization can be defined or seen as the â€Å"beliefs, norms, or values† that allow the members of an organization to work accordingly. The diversity is referred to the identification of difference in opinions and cultures or behaviors among the people and then enables them to work under one roof. There are differences between employees but to maintain a better workplace and to build an effective team or corporation is what the culture and diversity all about. However, it is difficult to manage an organization with diversified ideas and approaches (Williams). As

Empowering Knowledge in Organizations Assignment

Empowering Knowledge in Organizations - Assignment Example 192). That is why we cannot deny the fact that the process of spreading knowledge is facilitated by the development and diffusion of new information technologies. The growth of telecommunications and the multiplication of computers had accelerated the spread of information, giving more people access to more information sooner. That broader access undermines the centralized control of information that was a principal basis for centralized decision making. In the end, as Cleveland (1985) noted, "More and more work gets done by horizontal process-or it doesn't get done. More and more decisions are made with wider and wider consultation-or they don't 'stick'" (p. 192). This is why a new aspect on how knowledge is harnessed was formed. The term knowledge management (KM) has been defined as doing what is needed to get the most out of knowledge resources. Although KM can be applied to individuals, it has recently attracted the attention of organizations. KM is viewed as an increasingly important discipline that promotes the creation, sharing, and leveraging of the organization's knowledge. Peter Drucker (1994), whom many consider as the father of KM, best defines the need for KM: Knowledge has become the key resource, for a nation's military strength as well as for its economic strength is fundamentally different from the traditional key resources of the economist-land, labor, and even capital we need systematic work on the quality of knowledge and the productivity of knowledge the performance capacity, if not the survival, of any organization in the knowledge society will come increasingly to depend on those two factors (pp. 66-69). Thus, it can be argued that the most vital in empowering the businesses today is the collective knowledge residing in the minds of an organization's employees, customers, and suppliers. Learning how to manage organizational knowledge has many benefits, some of which are readily apparent; others are not. These benefits may include leveraging core business competencies, accelerating innovation and time to market, improving cycle times and decision making, strengthening organizational commitment, and building sustainable competitive advantage (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). In short, they make the organization better suited to compete successfully in a much more demanding environment. This is why organizations are increasingly valued for their intellectual capital. An example of this fact is the widening gap between corporate balance sheets and investors' estimation of corporate worth. It is said that knowledge-intensive companies around the world are valued at three to eight times their financial capital. Consider, for example, Microsoft, the highest valued company in the world, with a market capitalization that was estimated at around $284 billion as of July 2003. Clearly, this figure represents more than Microsoft's net worth in buildings, computers, and other physical assets. Microsoft's valuation also represents an estimation of its intellectual assets. This includes structural capital in the form of copyrights, customer databases, and business process software. It also includes human capital in the fo

Mongols Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Mongols - Essay Example For goods to fetch better prices in case of there is a low demand for the product, traders usually venture into some organizations that would help them make a sale. First, traders usually form cartels that will enable them create a monopolistic nature of the market (Rashdall, 1895, p. 150). This action will enable them to be the only stake holders in the market and any buyer can only get the commodity from them. Secondly, traders in the cartel group can easily get the support of the government when they want to remain relevant in the market, they do use the influence of the government so that they can get protection since they are able to show good skills and professionalism. Professionalism arises from apprentice where fellows are taught the skills through learning. Skills mainly consist of curving products from precious metals such as gold. In this venture, having a religious back up was previously considered to be very important as most of the countries were governed by laws relating to a particular religious groups. Religion still remains important today especially if the commodities are consumed by the state that holds a strong religious belief such as the Arab world, the Latin America and the Asians who majority lag behind a particular religion (Richardson, 2001, p. 213). This may not be the case to other countries who do not value religion as they allow freedom of worship. Having support from the religious group means a success in your

Assessing Foreign Markets Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Assessing Foreign Markets - Term Paper Example However, entry into a new market requires comprehensive study and exploration of different factors in order to make more informed decision before entering the market. As such the development of a framework for entering into new foreign market can provide critical insight to a firm to make better decision to enter the market. A comprehensive framework therefore may include the exploration of factors such as decision of identifying foreign market, overall timing of entry into that market, deciding on the scale and commitment and entry mode are some of the factors which should be covered to make a better decision. This paper will develop and construct a comprehensive framework for making entry in the Mobile Phones Market in India. Based on the different factors identified in the framework, paper will than present an analysis of these factors in order to make more informed decision to enter into this market Strategic Reasons As a prelude to the use of any strategic framework to enter int o a market, it is always important for the global firms to identify the strategic reasons for which entry into a foreign market is made. Firms adapting a transnational strategy often remain in search for simultaneously achieving low cost advantage through the location and experience economies while at the same time enjoying economies of scale and taking advantage of learning curve. Firms adapting such strategy therefore often enter into different geographical markets in order to take advantage of cost reduction and achieve diversification. (Hill) India being one of the growing economies of the world therefore can provide firm some clearly identified competitive advantage. Considering the transnational strategy of the firm, entering into India market will not only allow to achieve economies of scale but also enjoy the benefit of location and experience economies. Since developed markets are leading towards maturity stage in mobile phone industry therefore it is critical for global fi rms to continue to look for growing markets such as India in order to take advantage of the economic growth made by such countries. It is also significant to note that firms working at the global level could only compete if they enjoy low cost manufacturing or services set up. Consistent focus on reducing the costs could only allow the firm to remain profitable in global market therefore markets like India can offer this opportunity. This is based upon the fact that India has well established technological base as well as qualified human resource. These resources therefore can encourage any international firm to look for entering the market and enjoy low cost operations while at the same time penetrate into a new and growing market with potential to earn higher returns. Comprehensive Framework Following elements will be included in the comprehensive framework in order to analyze the decision of making an entry into Mobile Phones market in India: Identification of foreign market This parameter will be used

Analysis of Asian American Essay Example for Free

Analysis of Asian American Essay The United States has become the most diverse society on the face of the earth. For more than a century, most immigrants to the United States were Europeans—Germans, English, Italians, and so forth. However, according to â€Å"Globalization and Contemporary Immigration to the United States† by Min Zhou and J. V. Gatewood, â€Å"non-European immigration to the United States began in the late 1960s and has accelerated at rapid speeds since the early 1990s after a long hiatus due to restricted immigration. † More than one million people a year migrate, mostly from Asia and Latin American- is transforming America into a multicultural society. At the same time, diversity became a distinguishing characteristic of contemporary Asian American. Cultural, social, economic and geopolitical factors have contributed to the diversity and also has brought new challenges for immigrants and their children to adapt themselves to the new environment. (Min Zhou and J. V. Gatewood) There are four aspects about â€Å"the development of a coherent vision for future Asian American† as what Min Zhou and J. V. Gatewood described. Firstly, variously national origins, which make impact on both the immigrant generation and the second and third generation in language and religions. Secondly, socioeconomic diversity brings about different kinds of mobility patterns. Thirdly, diverse settlement modes influence the development of Asian American community. Finally, â€Å"immigration complicates intergenerational relations and ethnic solidarity. † As what Min Zhou and J. V. Gatewood referred, â€Å"the Philippines, China/Taiwan, Korea, India, and Vietnam have been on the list of top-ten sending countries since 1980. †Even though there were different kinds of laws to restrict immigration from the â€Å"Asian-Pacific triangle†, Asian immigrants found other ways to become eligible citizen. For example, marrying white Americans. With the development of globe economy, the U. S. immigration policy had been changed. On the one hand, the United States sought cheaper labor and resources abroad to develop the globalization of its economy. â€Å"Since the 1980s, about on e-third of the engineers and medical personnel in the U. S. labor market have come from abroad-mostly from India, China, Taiwan and the Philippines. † (Min Zhou and J.V. Gatewood) Further, more and more Asian study abroad, therefore, many international students, namely, foreign students, had found permanent employment in America so that they could stay here. On the other hand, globalization had played a significant role in immigration. For one thing, developing countries’ economics and occupational structures were interposed by the U. S. investment. The U. S. imported the abroad material and then processed, finally, exported to those developing countries. For another thing, with the increase number of labor demand, rural-urban migration increased rapidly.

Psychometric study of academic self efficacy scale

Psychometric study of academic self efficacy scale The development of Malaysia industries, infrastructures and ensuring the general well being of the country by Malaysian engineers cannot be underestimated. A new of engineering education model have been introduced to develop the interpersonal skills deal with public effectively as well as the technically competent ( Johari, 2002). In order to develop the interpersonal skills among Malaysia future engineers, a research in psychology well being have to be done. A psychometric analysis is most important part to get a valid and reliable psychology research for predicting the interpersonal skills among students. Standardized testing procedures are essential to valid testing. An invalid and misleading of the test result may alter by using of nonstandard procedures (Gregory, 2007). The psychological test is an effective tool in measuring the attitude and mental ability. It assesses their efficiency in acquiring knowledge relevant to the job and putting what they learn to practice. The test measures emotional stability, and skills such as analytical and problem-solving skills, human communication and leadership skills. The standard procedure for measuring beliefs of personal efficacy includes number of safeguards to minimize any potential motivational effects of self-assessment. These safeguards are built into the instructions and the mode of administration. Self-efficacy judgments are recorded privately without personal identification to reduce social evaluative concerns. The assessments of perceived efficacy and behavior are conducted in different settings and by different assessors to remove any possible carryover of social influence from assessment to the performance setting (Bandura, 1984). For example, in this case, The College Academic Self efficacy scale (Owen Froman, 1988) indicates that students perceptions of their abilities to perform tasks, greatly influences their success. The importance of validity and reliable measure of the sources of self-efficacy is needed. First, self-efficacy beliefs play a critical role in the academic and career choices of students (Hackett, 1995). It is important for educators or a counselors to be well known of the factors that help create and nurture the self-efficacy beliefs of their students. This information is invaluable in helping educators tailor their instructional strategies and counseling practices in ways most supportive both of their students self-efficacy and also of their achievement. Educators and counselors can also make use of such assessments as they evaluate the manner in which academic programs and intervention strategies may influence the self-efficacy beliefs of the adolescents in their care. All professional educators would readily agree that identifying the ways in which students unrealistically low self-efficacy beliefs can be challenged and altered is an essential and critical enterprise. Another important reason why a psychometrically sound assessment of the sources of self-efficacy is required is that the tenets of Banduras (1986) social cognitive theory regarding the workings of self-efficacy cannot effectively be tested without such assessment. Researchers who wish to understand the formation of academic self-efficacy must obtain that understanding using valid and reliable measures that faithfully reflect the sources hypothesized and their role within the broader structure of social cognitive theory. This is especially important in the field of academic motivation where the sources of self-efficacy have often been operationalized and measured in a manner that bears little resemblance to how they were hypothesized by Bandura (1986, 1997). This study will be able to craft items to assess each source by matching them carefully to each source as it that has been described by Bandura (1997). The researcher next sought to establish a psychometrically fit model to measure the sources of self-efficacy and to test whether the model is invariant across demographic factors and the correlation with social support. This study will be also examined evidence for convergent and factor analysis by assessing the relationship between the sources, self-efficacy, and other constructs typically included in studies of academic motivation. College Students self-efficacy beliefs have been found to play an important role in motivating them to learn (Pajares Schunk, 2001). Self-efficacy refers to beliefs about ones capability to learn or perform effectively, such as to solve a particular type of math problem. Self-efficacy differs operationally from other self-related constructs in that self-efficacy items are phrased in terms of what students can do rather than what they will do or usually do in a particular domain (Bandura, 2006). An important type of self-efficacy focuses on students beliefs about their capability to self-regulate learning (SRL), which refers to such processes as goal setting, self-monitoring, strategy use, self-evaluation, and self-reactions (Zimmerman, 2007). Research has indicated that self efficacy correlates with achievement outcomes (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Schunk, 1995). Students with high self efficacy often display greater performance comparatively to those with low efficacy. Self efficacy is also equated with self competence, hence significant authorities such as parents and teachers who exert great influences should play their role efficiently in enhancing this self competence and eventually self efficacy for it has great bearings in achievement, be it in the English language or any other subjects ( Mahyuddin.R, 2006). 1.2 Problem Statement This study concentrates on the psychometric properties and application of the Academic Self-Efficacy Scale and its relationship with social supports and students life satisfaction. Through the haze of available measurements in self efficacy, may of them offering weak or unknown psychometric properties, and unlikely that self-efficacy can penetrate clearly (Owen and Froman, 1988). Items in Self efficacy scale should accurately reflect the construct. Self efficacy is concerned with perceived capability. Self efficacy should also be distinguished from other constructs such as self esteem, locus of control, self regulation and outcome expectancies. Scientific advances are greatly accelerated by methodological development of assessment tools for key determinants of human functioning. Quality of assessment provides the basis for stringent empirical tests of theory. Self efficacy assessment tailored to domains of functioning and task demands identify patterns of strengths and limitations in perceived capability (Bandura, 1997). The academic self efficacy and self efficacy in learning have been widely investigate by western researchers and educators. For Malaysian researcher, the study of academic self efficacy is quite constrictive. There are several significance to investigate the psychometric properties of the academic self efficacy scale that will be discussed in part significance of the study. Researchers have previously investigated predictors affecting students decision to pursue higher education. Predictors include primary and secondary school preparations, family dynamics, self esteem, commitment to goals and social support systems. Yet, with all the services available to students and the research conducted to better understand factor associated with the above issues, there are some students who never successfully assimilate into and navigate through the university system (Shaw, N. E, 2008). Owen and Fromans (1988) College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale was selected for this study because it was different from most academic self-efficacy instruments. CASES was unique in that the instrument investigates feelings of academic self-efficacy as a whole as opposed to teasing out individual constructs or areas of academic self-efficacy such as English, mathematics, and reading. Owen and Froman (1988) also believed that CASES can give specific diagnostic findings that can influence holistic change to increase overall academic self-efficacy. This study is unique because one of its objectives was not to simply find a relationship between self efficacy, academic motivation and academic achievement, but to also explore how the psychometric properties is significance before the researcher conduct a test. The study attempted to focus on the mediating variable that would explain the relationship between self efficacy, academic motivation and academic achievement. 1.3 Research Question The research questions are listed as below; i) Do the ASES scores demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliability, convergent validity and factor analysis of the testing for the college students? ii) Are there significant differences in the level of academic self efficacy experienced by male and female students? iii) Are there significant differences in the level of academic self efficacy experienced by students with the level of parents education and income? iv) Is there a relationship between college academic self-efficacy and social support? v) is there a relationship between academic self efficacy and life satisfaction? 1.4 Research Objectives: i) To examine the psychometric properties of a Academic Self efficacy Scale to estimate the students self-efficacy. ii) To identify the levels of self efficacy among engineering students in tertiary education iii) To identify the relationship of self efficacy with demographic factors. iv) To identify the relationship of academic self efficacy with students social supports. v) To identify the relationship of academic self efficacy with life satisfaction. 1.5 Significance of the study Many studies in educational and psychological literature revealed that measurement of self-efficacy is important in the field of education because of its key role and relationships with many other variables, which have great influences on education. For this reason, self efficacy measurements and the development of an effective measurement tool with respect to psychometric properties have become an important issue and major concern. The educators can nurture student self-direction and personal efficacy by providing students with opportunities before, during and after instruction to exercise some control of their own learning. An emphasis on student self-direction and efficacy means that educators teach and engage students in specific strategies that offer them opportunities to make decisions and solve problems on their own without being told what to do at all times. It means, the educators can provide them with strategies designed to help them process information effectively and to be self-confident, believing that they have the abilities to succeed. And perhaps most important, we help students become more reflective about their thinking and learning processes. The perceived attractiveness of the field of engineering and the attrition of engineering students are important issues that are significantly influenced by self-efficacy beliefs. In order to address these problems, educators must gain a better understanding of how students assess their confidence in their abilities to complete the tasks that they find necessary to succeed in engineering fields with their engineering self-efficacy beliefs (Hutchison, 2007). Self-efficacy can influence peoples behavior either positively or negatively, based on their perception of their abilities concerning a particular task. It influences the choices people make, the effort they put forth, and how long they persist in the face of obstacles and failure. The efficacy beliefs of undergraduate students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) programs have been linked to their persistence, achievement and interest. 1.6 Limitation of the study The psychometric study will only focus on The College Academic Self Efficacy Scale(CASES) which was develop by Owen and Froman (1988). This instrument also will be used to study the level of academic self efficacy among students. The sample only will be focus on engineering undergraduates. This study only will be done in Higher Public universities in term of geographical, cultural and course offered by the universities. 1.7 Definition of the Terms Psychometric Psychometrics is the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of educational and psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. The field is primarily concerned with the study of measurement instruments such as questionnaires and tests. It involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement. In this study, the psychometric analysis will be involved the reliability and validity analysis. In this research, the psychometric analysis will be involved reliability, convergent validity and confirmatory factor analysis. Academic Self efficacy Academic self-efficacy refers to individuals convictions that they can successfully perform given academic tasks at designated levels (Schunk, 1991). In this study, academic self efficacy will be demonstrated by the College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) developed by Owen Froman (1988). College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) College Academic Self-Efficacy Scale (CASES) refers to an instruments which was developed by Owen Froman (1988) in order to assess students belief that they can master the material and skills thought in university. The CASES was used in order to measure students levels of perceived academic self-efficacy. The scale contained 33-item with five-point Likert-type instruction to be appended. Social supports Life satisfaction A global assessment of a persons quality of life, dependent on the values and criteria deemed important by the individual (Shin Johnson, 1978). Engineering students Engineering students refers for those whom learned and willing to do the creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. In this study, engineering students refers to first year students from four selected public universities which includes Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UNIMAP), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia(UTM), Universiti Putra malaysia and Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter will review and summarize the model and social cognitive theory and also self efficacy by Bandura (1997). The researcher has also focused on psychometrics analysis such as validity and reliability. The primary goal of understanding how students from engineering self efficacy beliefs, Bandura (1997) self efficacy beliefs, Bandura (1997) self-efficacy theory was selected to guide the research. 2.2 Social cognitive theory The selection of a guiding theoretical construct is directed by the questions a study seeks to answer (Patton,2002). The social cognitive theory aimed to focus attention on the significant role played by observational learning and vicarious reinforcement in human functioning. Bandura (1977) developed his theory to further include the essential component of self beliefs holds as a factor in human behavior. Social cognitive theory holds that human behavior, adaptation and change are based on cognitive, vicarious, self-regularotary and self reflective processes, rather than reactive responses as claimed in behaviorist theories. BEHAVIOR PERSONAL FACTORS ENVIRONMENTAL (Cognitive, affective, and FACTORS biological events) Figure 1.. Model of the relations between the three classes of determinants in Banduras (1986) conception of triadic reciprocality Figure 1 shows the model of the relations between the three classes of determinants in Banduras (1986) conception of triadic reciprocality. People are viewed as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating rather than as reactive organisms shaped and shepherded by environmental forces or driven by concealed inner impulses. From this theoretical perspective, human functioning is viewed as the product of a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioral, and environmental influences. For example, how people interpret the results of their own behavior informs and alters their environments and the personal factors they possess which, in turn, inform and alter subsequent behavior. This is the foundation of Banduras (1986) conception of reciprocal determinism, the view that (a) personal factors in the form of cognition, affect, and biological events, (b) behavior, and (c) environmental influences create interactions that result in a triadic reciprocality. Bandura altered the l abel of his theory from social learning to social cognitive both to distance it from prevalent social learning theories of the day and to emphasize that cognition plays a critical role in peoples capability to construct reality, self-regulate, encode information, and perform behaviors. 2.3 Self Efficacy Beliefs The self-beliefs that individuals use to exercise a measure of control over their environments include self-efficacy beliefs. beliefs in ones capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations (Bandura, 1997, p. 2). Self-efficacy beliefs are concerned with individuals perceived capabilities to produce results and to attain designated types of performance, they differ from related conceptions of personal competence that form the core constructs of other theories. Self-efficacy judgments are both more task- and situation-specific, contextual if you will, and individuals make use of these judgments in reference to some type of goal. To better understand the nature of self-efficacy beliefs it may be useful to explain how they are acquired, how they influence motivational and self-regulatory process, and how they differ from similar or related conceptions of self-belief. According to Bandura, there are four major sources of self-efficacy. 1. Mastery Experiences The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences, Bandura explained (1994). Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy. 2. Social Modeling Witnessing other people successfully completing a task is another important source of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, Seeing people similar to oneself succeed by sustained effort raises observers beliefs that they too possess the capabilities master comparable activities to succeed (1994). 3. Social Persuasion Bandura also asserted that people could be persuaded to belief that they have the skills and capabilities to succeed. Consider a time when someone said something positive and encouraging that helped you achieve a goal. Getting verbal encouragement from others helps people overcome self-doubt and instead focus on giving their best effort to the task at hand. 4. Psychological Responses Our own responses and emotional reactions to situations also play an important role in self-efficacy. Moods, emotional states, physical reactions, and stress levels can all impact how a person feels about their personal abilities in a particular situation. A person who becomes extremely nervous before speaking in public may develop a weak sense of self-efficacy in these situations. However, Bandura also notes it is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted (1994). By learning how to minimize stress and elevate mood when facing difficult or challenging tasks, people can improve their sense of self-efficacy. Bandura (1986) considered self-reflection the most uniquely human capability, for through this form of self-referent thought people evaluate and alter their own thinking and behavior. These self-evaluations include perceptions of self-efficacy, that is, beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations. These beliefs of personal competence affect behavior in several ways. They influence the choices individuals make and the courses of action they pursue. People engage in tasks in which they feel competent and confident and avoid those in which they do not. Efficacy beliefs help determine how much effort people will expend on an activity, how long they will persevere when confronting obstacles, and how resilient they will prove in the face of adverse situations-the higher the sense of efficacy, the greater the effort, persistence, and resilience. Efficacy beliefs also influence individuals thought patterns and emotional reactions. People with low self-efficacy may believe that things are tougher than they really are, a belief that fosters stress, depression, and a narrow vision of how best to solve a problem. High self-efficacy, on the other hand, helps to create feelings of serenity in approaching difficult tasks and activities. As a result of these influences, self-efficacy beliefs are strong determinants and predictors of the level of accomplishment that individuals finally attain. For these reasons, Bandura (in press) argued that beliefs of personal efficacy constitute the key factor of human agency . 2.4 Engineering Self Efficacy Numerous studies examining the role of self efficacy in students pursuit of engineering careers have generally found a positive correlation between self-efficacy and academic achievement in engineering disciplines (AWE, 2005). For example, it has been found that ones self-efficacy beliefs influence on effort, persistence, and perseverance in goal attainment (Bandura Schunk, 1981; Bouffard-Bouchard, 1990; Schunk Hanson, 1985). Similar findings reveal that high self-efficacy beliefs influence the academic persistence necessary to maintain high academic achievement amongst college students enrolled in science and engineering courses (Lent, Brown, Larkin, 1984, 1986). Previous research also has clearly made the case that the construct of engineering self efficacy can be an important contributor to success in science, technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM) career education by influencing the choice to pursue STEM careers and the persistence with which it is pursued. Hutchison et al (2006) have done a survey incorporating qualitative measures of student self-efficacy beliefs to administer 1,387 first-year engineering students enrolled in ENGR 106, Engineering Problem-Solving and Computer Tools, at Purdue University. The survey was designed to identify factors related to students self-efficacy beliefs, their beliefs about their capabilities to perform the tasks necessary to achieve a desired outcome. Open-ended questions prompted students to list factors affecting their confidence in their ability to succeed in the course. Students were then asked to rank these factors based on the degree to which their self-efficacy beliefs were influenced. Gender trends emerged in student responses to factors that affect confident in success. These trends are discussed in light of the categories identified by efficacy theorists as sources of self-efficacy beliefs. The results presented here provide a useful look at the first-year engineering experiences that inf luence students efficacy beliefs, an important consideration in explaining student achievement, persistence, and interest. 2.5 Academic self efficacy Bandura (1997) believed that self-efficacy contributes to the academic achievement of students. Bandura proposed that individuals make a cognitive judgment about their mastery of present situations in view of their past experiences, and proceed to carry out the necessary behaviors to accomplish the task at hand. Students are affected by personal (e.g., goal setting, information processing) and situational influences (e.g., rewards, teacher feedback) that provide students with cues about how well they are learning. Self-efficacy is enhanced when students perceive they are performing well or becoming more skillful. Lack of success or slow progress will not necessarily lower self-efficacy if learners believe they can perform better by expending more effort or using more effective strategies (Schunk, 1995). Schunk (1991) in his study has also proposed that self-efficacy is critical to the academic achievement of adolescents. He hypothesized that self-efficacy influences a students choice of activities. Students with a high level of self-efficacy will select more challenging learning tasks, therefore expending more persistence and effort to obtain higher achievement outcomes, whereas students with low level of self-efficacy will avoid difficult and challenging tasks that require more effort and persistence, and thus, obtain lower achievement outcomes. Figure 1 The Development of Academic Self Efficacy ( Adapted from Schunk and Pajares, 2001) Familial Influence on Self-Efficacy Peer Influence Role of Schooling Transitional Influences Developmental Changes in Self-Appraisal Skill Gender Differences Ethnic Differences ACADEMIC SELF EFFICACY Students with higher self-efficacy expend greater effort, exhibit more persistence and demonstrate greater resilience in the face of adverse situations. As a result of these influences, self-efficacy beliefs are strong determinants of the level of accomplishment (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996), and therefore contribute tremendously to intellectual development which leads to academic success (Bandura, 1995). In addition, the research literature includes several studies which emphasize the effect of self-efficacy on numerous positive outcomes as well as academic achievement. In this case, not only has self-efficacy been found to positively relate to higher levels of achievement, but also it has a strong association with a variety of adaptive academic 30 outcomes such as higher levels of effort and increased persistence on difficult tasks. This finding has been confirmed across a number of experimental and correlational studies involving students of different ages (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich Schunk, 2002). Also, in a correlational study conducted by Linnenbrink and Pintrich (2002), was found that self- efficacy is positively related to student cognitive engagement and their use of self- regulatory strategies as well as general achievement as indexed by grades (Pintrich, 2000b; Pintrich De Groot, 1990; Wolters, Yu, Pintrich, 1996). Lastly, further evidence exists in the research literature that confirms Schunks hypothesis that students who have positive self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to choose to continue to take more difficult courses over the course of schooling (Eccles et al., 1998). Although several studies confirm the positive effect of self-efficacy on academic achievement, there also seems to be a number of other mediating influences or related variables that provide further explanation of this relationship. In view of possible mediating influences, there exist contradictions in the literature regarding the exact nature of the relationship of self-efficacy with other related variables (e.g., goal orientation, motivation) in explaining positive academic outcomes, as well as its precise strength in predicting academic achievement, irrespective of these variables. Such discrepancies in the research literature should be considered in examining the effect of self-efficacy on academic achievement. The finding that self-efficacy beliefs tend to decline as students advance through school (Pintrich Schunk, 1996) has been attributed to various factors, including greater competition, more norm-referenced grading, less teacher attention to individual student progress, a nd stresses associated with school transitions. These and other school practices can weaken academic self efficacy, especially among students who are less academically prepared to cope with increasingly challenging academic tasks. Lock-step sequences of instruction frustrate some students who fail to grasp skills and increasingly fall behind their peers (Bandura, 1997). Ability groupings can lower self-efficacy among those relegated to lower groups. Classrooms that allow for much social comparison tend to lower the self-efficacy of students who find their performances inferior to those of their peers. Students involvement and participation in school depend in part on how much the school environment contributes to their perceptions of autonomy and relatedness, which in turn influence self-efficacy and academic achievement. Although parents and teachers contribute to feeling of autonomy and relatedness, peers become highly significant during adolescence. The peer group context enhances or diminishes students feelings of belonging and affiliation (Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, McDougall, 1996). 2.6 Social support College students may seek social and emotional support from their family and friends. Social support, or receiving emotional, informational, and/or tangible support from other individuals (Lazarus Folkman, 1984), has been linked positively with the maintenance of physical health during stressful situations. In addition, the perceived availability of social support, rather than the actual use of social support, may actually be more important in protecting individuals from the harmful effects of stressful situations (Holahan Moos, 1987). Further, social support may be an important component of college students transitioning successfully to the college environment (Hays Oxley, 1986) and college students academic achievement (DeBerard et al., 2004), with low levels of social support being related to a lack of persistence in academic endeavors (Mallinckrodt, 1988). Given these findings, it is possible that support from family and friends is extremely important in the lives of college students during their college careers, particularly as they experience and make attempts to cope with academic-related stress. For example, one study using a sample of first- and second-year college students, most of whom were without daily parental contact, showed that parental support predicted significantly the grade point average (GPA) of these students. In contrast, support from friends and romantic partners did not predict GPA significantly (Cutrona et al., 1994). These results indicated that, although parents may be removed physically from college students daily life, they still may have a major impact on college students academic performance. As a result, the perceived level of emotional support from college students parents may be related greatly to many aspects of their college career, including their academic performance and their experience of academic- related stress. 2.6.1 Parental support Seminal attachment theories developed by Bowlby (1969) and Ainsworth and

Sexually Abused Child in Foster Care Setting | Case Study

Sexually Abused Child in Foster Care Setting | Case Study The sexually abused child in the foster setting Current researchers believe the majority of children entering the foster system have been traumatized physically and emotionally and now require care the foster system was not originally created address[1]. Additionally, foster children are reported to have â€Å"three to seven times as many acute and chronic health conditions, developmental delays and emotional adjustment problems† as their non-foster peers[2]. The care provided in foster care is of critical importance, as research emphasizes the remaking of an attachment based relationship, such as the foster parent-child relationship, is the focal emotional need during the foster experience[3]. When a child has been sexually abused, the care required is of paramount importance, however, a careful and comprehensive assessment of the child is required as childhood sexual abuse affects different children completely differently, displaying a range of symptoms or lack thereof[4]. Cicchetti and Toth[5] emphasize the individual di fferences that abuse has on individuals is most often based on the child’s level of functioning at the time of the sexual abuse, such that the sexual abuse and/or other forms of concurrent child abuse will be interpreted by one child differently from another. As the child matures, the abuse will also carry different meanings, therefore Cicchetti and Toth[6] tell us that [foster] caregivers must readily adapt to the changing issues the child is dealing with and manner in which he/she relates. This essay will present a brief case study followed by an examination of the foster parent skills, qualities and understanding needed to engage in a relationship with a child who has been sexually abused, critically reflecting on actions taken with the child. For purposes of this paper, the child discussed is an adolescent who suffered repeated sexual abuse in an intra-familial setting. Issues relating specifically to infants, preschool or younger children victimized by sexual abuse and placed in a foster care setting are considered beyond the current scope of this essay. Additionally, issues pertaining to the legalities implicit in a childhood sexual abuse case, abuse by an extra-familial individual or issues pertaining to abduction and violence perpetrated upon a child in conjunction with sexual abuse are considered beyond the scope of this essay. Case study J is a 14-year-old female who was repeatedly sexually abused by her step-father from the age of five years. J’s mother was an alcoholic and unable to hold a job. J’s step-father threatened that he’d kill her mother and J if she told anyone. J remained silent for the first eight years, displaying a variety of emotional and physical problem that doctors and school officials put off to developmental disturbances. When J finally told her mother when she was 13 years-old, her mother said it was because J was such a pretty girl and to just go along with it because after all, he provided for them all and they’d be on the street otherwise. When J was called to the principal’s office for disruptive and aggressive behaviour towards a boy who made sexual advances to her in the hallway, J finally told her principal what was going on at home and family service and police officials were called in. J was removed from the home and placed in foster care. J was 15 by the time she was placed in this writer’s foster care. J exhibited many of the common mannerisms common to adolescent females victimized by intra-familial sexual abuse including adopting sexually promiscuous and extremely flirtatious behaviour with other males, engaging in self-injurious behaviour such as cutting coupled with distancing herself from trusting authority figures. Also noted by this writer were J’s frequent depressive episodes and affect. It was important to note, consistent with current research, that the British child welfare authority over two-thirds met current diagnostic criteria for at least one or more psychiatric disorders[7], emphasizing that older individuals in foster care have a higher rate of lifetime and past year psychiatric disorders, frequently onset prior to the initiation of the foster situation. Fostering J Consistent with research by Yancey[8] an appropriate combination of mentoring and role-modelling for J was an integral part of her fostering. Role modelling does not necessarily necessitate personal interaction, whereas mentoring also includes deliberate support, guidance and an effort to help shape the adolescent, as in the case of J where she had not developed the appropriate skills with which to weather difficult periods in her life or make sense of what had happened to her in real world terms[9]  and examine the skills, qualities and understanding needed to engage in a relationship with that child. J’s brain anatomy was modified by the repetitive abuse, accounting for much of her depression and other personality disorders[10] through the L-HPA axis impact[11]. Explaining this to J in terms she would understand was difficult as she was not overtly trusting of authority or parental figures; the information only seemed to fuel her rage at her role of helpless victim and further emphasize her own role in the abuse process rather than appropriate placement of blame externally on her step-father. Similarly, research highlights the persistence of depression and other emotional areas of dysfunction up to and extending beyond five years following childhood sexual abuse[12]. Given the goal of foster placement as the reunification of the family unit[13] occasional visitation with J’s mother caused greater depressive episodes and more dramatic episodes of self-injurious behaviour, which is consistent with the literature stating further abuser contact within five years can be used to predict higher levels of depression in the abused child[14]. Significant mentoring with J focused on building her sense of self-esteem and orienting her towards healing her own inner hurt child, mothering it in ways that were not provided to her in her critical early childhood years. For example, it was important to help J search for solutions and focus on how to overcome her current issues and for her to admit problems exist with her normal day to day actions. Rather than nurture her child’s mind questioning â€Å"why† did this happen to me, this writer had to stress that she is responsible for her own thoughts, feelings and behaviour at this point in her life and as it moves forward, that she can construct her own destiny, especially since she is within years of adulthood[15]. It was difficult explaining that her sexually aggressive behaviour was not considered normal, but an affect of her abuse[16] as she continued to seek the physical intimacy with a male as an expression of their love for her rather than simply sexual gratif ication[17], still replaying her step-father’s verbal expressions of his love for her, how attractive she was, etc. Given J’s level of problems with attachment relationships, it was instrumental working with her coming from the transactional analysis framework emphasizing relations needs both current and in the archaic ego, emphasizing J’s need for security and protection experienced within a relationship[18]. One of the most difficult issues relative to providing care for J was to nurture her commitment to positive change, as considered a fundamental principle of transactional analysis based integrative therapy[19] as J demonstrated oppositional and defiant behaviours on a regular basis. J’s continual behaviour issues emphasized the need for working with her as a role model and mentor rather than being directly confrontational with her regarding her dysfunctional behaviour or inappropriate thinking. This emphasized keeping control of J’s life in her hands, considered by research as critical for survivors of sexual abuse[20]. Research demonstrates that combining therapy in the foster setting can reduce stress for the child and caregiver, increase the development of positive attachment relationships and corresponds with an increase in positive behavioural change[21]. While the interaction with J was a positive, albeit difficult one, upon reflection, however, one major change would have been to mutually establish J’s goals for growth into an integrated and intact adult. This would have helped establish a foundation and framework for working together. Bibliography Alfaro, Jose, Fein, Edith, Fine, Paul, Halfon, Neal, Irwin, Martin, Nickman, Steven, Pilowsky, Daniel K., Rosenfeld, Alvin A., Saletsky, Ronald, Simms, Mark D. Thorpe, Marilyn. Foster Care: An Update. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997. Auslander, Wendy F., McMillen, J. Curtis, Munson, Michelle R., Ollie, Marcia T., Scott, Lionel D., Spitznagel, Edward L. Zima, Bonnie, T. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders Among Older Youths in the Foster Care System. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2005. Baird, Frank. A Narrative Context for Conversations with Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse. Progress – Family Systems Research and Therapy, 1996. Black, James E., Haight, Wendy L. Kagle, Jill Doner. Understanding and Supporting Parent-Child Relationships during Foster Care Visits: Attachment theory and Research. Social Work, 2003. Chamberlain, Patricia, Fisher, Philip A., Gunnar, Megan R. Reid, John B. Preventive Intervention for Maltreated Children: Impact on Children’s Behaviour, Neuroendocrine Activity, and Foster Parent Functioning. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2000. Cicchetti, Diane Toth, Sheree L. A Developmental Psychopathology Perspective on Child Abuse and Neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1995. Erskine, Richard G. A Gestalt Therapy Approach to Shame and Self-Righteousness: Theory and Methods. The British Gestalt Journal, 1995. Green, Arthur H. Child Sexual Abuse: Immediate and Long-Term Effects and Intervention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1993. Oates, R. Kim, O’Toole, Brian L., Swanston, Heather Tebbutt, Jennifer. Five Years after Child Sexual Abuse: Persisting Dysfunction and Problems of Prediction. Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997. O’Reilly-Knapp, Marye Erskine, Richard G. Core Concepts of an Integrative Transactional Analysis. Transactional Journal, 2003. Temple, Susannah. Transactional Analysis Philosophy, Principles and Practice. Temple Index of Functional Fluency, 2006. Retrieved from: http://www.functionalfluency.com/articles_resources/Philosophy_Principles_Practice.pdf Cited 10 September 2007. Yancey, Antoinette, K. Building Positive Self-Image in Adolescents in Foster Care. Adolescence, 1998. Footnotes [1] J. Alfaro, E. Fein, P. Fine, N. Halfon, M. Irwin, S. Nickman, D. J. Pilowsky, A. A. Rosenfeld, R. Saletzky, M. D. Sims M. Thorpe, Foster Care: AN Update, Journal of the Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. [2] Alfaro et al. [3] Alfaro et al. [4] A. H. Green. Child Sexual Abuse: Immediate and Long-Term Effects and Intervention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1993. [5] D. Cicchetti S. L. Toth. A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1995. [6] Cicchetti Toth. [7] W. F. Auslander, J. C. McMillen, M. R. Munson, M. T. Ollie, L. D. Scott, E. L. Spitznagel B. T. Zima. Prevalence of Psychiatric Disorders among Older Youths in the Foster Care System. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. [8] A. K. Yancey. Building Positive Self-Image in Adolescents in Foster Care. Adolescence, 1998. [9] Yancey. [10] J. E. Black, W. L. Haight J. D. Kagle. Understanding and Supporting Parent-Child Relationships during Foster Care Visits: Attachment Theory and Research. Social Work, 2003. [11] P. Chamberlain, P. A. Fisher, M. R. Gunnar J. B. Reid. Preventive Intervention for Maltreated Preschool Children: Impact on Children’s Behavior, Neuroendocrine Activity, and Foster Parent Functioning. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2000. The limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis shows different responses on maltreated children, disabling their ability to regulate their emotions appropriately following the developmental disruption. [12] R. K. Oates, B. L. O’Toole, H. Swanston J. Tebbutt. Five Years after Child Sexual Abuse: Persisting Dysfunction and Problems of Prediction. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1997. [13] Black, Haight Kagle. [14] Oates et al. [15] S. Temple. Transactional Analysis Philosophy, Principles and Practice. Temple Index of Functional Fluency. Retrieved from http://www.functionalfluency.com/articles_resources/Philosophy_Principles_Practice, 2006. [16] A. H. Green. Child Sexual Abuse: Immediate and Long-Term Effects and Intervention. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1993. [17] Green. [18] M. O’Reilly-Knapp R. G. Erskine. Core Concepts of an Integrative Transactional Analysis. Institute for Integrative Psychotherapy. Retrieved from: http://www.integrativetherapy.com/en/articles.php?id=40. [19] O’Reilly-Knapp Erskine. [20] F. Bard. A Narrative Context for Conversations with Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse. Progress – Family Systems Research and Therapy, 1996. [21] Chamberlain et al.

Alan Greenspan :: essays research papers

Alan Greenspan took office June 19, 2004, for a fifth term as Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Dr. Greenspan also serves as Chairman of the Federal Open Market Committee, the System's principal monetary policymaking body. He originally took office as Chairman and to fill an unexpired term as a member of the Board on August 11, 1987. Dr. Greenspan was reappointed to the Board to a full 14-year term, which began February 1, 1992, and ends January 31, 2006. He has been designated Chairman by Presidents Reagan, Bush, Clinton, and Bush. Dr. Greenspan was born on March 6, 1926, in New York City. He received a B.S. in economics (summa cum laude) in 1948, an M.A. in economics in 1950, and a Ph.D. in economics in 1977, all from New York University. Dr. Greenspan also has performed advanced graduate study at Columbia University. From 1954 to 1974 and from 1977 to 1987, Dr. Greenspan was Chairman and President of Townsend-Greenspan & Co., Inc., an economic consulting firm in New York City. From 1974 to 1977, he served as Chairman of the President's Council of Economic Advisers under President Ford, and from 1981 to 1983, as Chairman of the National Commission on Social Security Reform. Dr. Greenspan has also served as a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board, a member of Time magazine's Board of Economists, a senior adviser to the Brookings Panel on Economic Activity, and a consultant to the Congressional Budget Office. His previous Presidential appointments include the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, the Commission on Financial Structure and Regulation, the Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force, and the Task Force on Economic Growth. Before his appointment to the Board, Dr. Greenspan served as a corporate director for Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa); Automatic Data Processing, Inc.; Capital Cities/ABC, Inc.; General Foods, Inc.; J.P. Morgan & Co., Inc.; Morgan Guaranty Trust Company of New York; Mobil Corporation; and The Pittston Company. His noncorporate positions have included Member of the Board of Trustees, The Rand Corporation; Director, Institute for International Economics; Member of the Board of Overseers, Hoover Institution (at Stanford University); and Vice Chairman and Trustee, Economic Club of New York. Dr. Greenspan has served as Chairman of the Conference of Business Economists, President and Fellow of the National Association of Business Economists, and Director of the National Economists Club.

Alcohol Essay -- essays research papers fc

1. What is alcoholism? 2. How do people become alcoholics? 3. What are the effects of alcoholism, on both the alcoholic and their family? 4. How do you diagnose alcoholism? 5. Is there a cure for alcoholics? 6. What is the treatment? What is Alcoholism? Alcoholism can be defined as the dependency on alcohol; addiction to alcohol. It is a chronic disease, this disease called alcoholism is progressive and potentially fatal. â€Å" In 1966 the American Medical Association (AMA) declared Alcoholism a disease, but it is still judged morally by society† said Father Martin. There are different types of alcoholics, the first type of alcoholic is the everyday drinker. These alcoholics drink on a daily basis with a high dependency on alcohol. A second type is the weekend alcoholics, they drink on weekends, usually to excess. Finally, the third type is the binge drinker. This is a person who drinks heavily on occasion. Probably the most dangerous type of alcoholism, because they are most likely to die of alcohol poisoning. How do people become alcoholics? Alcoholics don’t know how they became alcoholics. Some say it is genetic on the stress gene, triggered by psychological or social stress. While others say it is a learned maladaptive coping behavior. Studies have shown that alcoholism may be genetic. If alcoholism is genetic it would be indirect. it would be related to the stress gene. This means that stress would set off a trigger that makes alcohol a want to the person. If alcoholism is learned behavior it means that drinking is a bad coping skill, most likely learned through an alcoholic parent. What are the effects of alcoholism, on both the alcoholic and their family? Alcohol has terrible effects on health, family and work. The effects of alcohol on the body are cirrhosis of the liver, loss of brain cells, stomach cancer, depression, tremors and blackouts. An alcoholic in the family causes many disruptions to the members of the family. They start argum ents and fights by not functioning or being drunk. They either do not attend family gatherings or disrupt them. Some alcoholics can be abusive to other family members. A lot of alcoholic families find themselves in financial trouble, caused by the alcoholic using most of the money to buy alcohol. Kids of an alcoholic suffer the most, listening to arguments and being the blame of their parents drinking, making the ... ...very A.A. group ought to be self-supporting, declining outside contributions.† Tradition Eight: â€Å" Alcoholics Anonymous should remain forever non-professional, but our service centers may employ special workers.† Tradition Nine: â€Å" A.A., as such, ought never be organized; but we create service boards or committees directly responsible to those they serve.† Tradition Ten: â€Å" Alcoholics Anonymous has no opinion on outside issues; hence the A.A. name ought never be drawn into public controversy.† Tradition Eleven: â€Å" Our public relations policy is based on attraction rather than promotion; we need always maintain personal anonymity at the level of press, radio, and films.† Tradition Twelve: â€Å" Anonymity is the spiritual foundation of all our traditions, ever reminding us to place principles before personalities.† Bibliography Work Cited Silverstein, Herma. Alcoholism. New York: Franklin Watts, 1990 Wekesser, Carol. Alcoholism. San Diego: Greenhaven Press Inc., 1994 Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services Inc., 1995 â€Å" Alcohol and Alcoholism.† The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986 Word Count: 1414 Alcohol Essay -- essays research papers fc 1. What is alcoholism? 2. How do people become alcoholics? 3. What are the effects of alcoholism, on both the alcoholic and their family? 4. How do you diagnose alcoholism? 5. Is there a cure for alcoholics? 6. What is the treatment? What is Alcoholism? Alcoholism can be defined as the dependency on alcohol; addiction to alcohol. It is a chronic disease, this disease called alcoholism is progressive and potentially fatal. â€Å" In 1966 the American Medical Association (AMA) declared Alcoholism a disease, but it is still judged morally by society† said Father Martin. There are different types of alcoholics, the first type of alcoholic is the everyday drinker. These alcoholics drink on a daily basis with a high dependency on alcohol. A second type is the weekend alcoholics, they drink on weekends, usually to excess. Finally, the third type is the binge drinker. This is a person who drinks heavily on occasion. Probably the most dangerous type of alcoholism, because they are most likely to die of alcohol poisoning. How do people become alcoholics? Alcoholics don’t know how they became alcoholics. Some say it is genetic on the stress gene, triggered by psychological or social stress. While others say it is a learned maladaptive coping behavior. Studies have shown that alcoholism may be genetic. If alcoholism is genetic it would be indirect. it would be related to the stress gene. This means that stress would set off a trigger that makes alcohol a want to the person. If alcoholism is learned behavior it means that drinking is a bad coping skill, most likely learned through an alcoholic parent. What are the effects of alcoholism, on both the alcoholic and their family? Alcohol has terrible effects on health, family and work. The effects of alcohol on the body are cirrhosis of the liver, loss of brain cells, stomach cancer, depression, tremors and blackouts. An alcoholic in the family causes many disruptions to the members of the family. They start argum ents and fights by not functioning or being drunk. They either do not attend family gatherings or disrupt them. Some alcoholics can be abusive to other family members. A lot of alcoholic families find themselves in financial trouble, caused by the alcoholic using most of the money to buy alcohol. Kids of an alcoholic suffer the most, listening to arguments and being the blame of their parents drinking, making the ... ...very A.A. group ought to be self-supporting, declining outside contributions.† Tradition Eight: â€Å" Alcoholics Anonymous should remain forever non-professional, but our service centers may employ special workers.† Tradition Nine: â€Å" A.A., as such, ought never be organized; but we create service boards or committees directly responsible to those they serve.† Tradition Ten: â€Å" Alcoholics Anonymous has no opinion on outside issues; hence the A.A. name ought never be drawn into public controversy.† Tradition Eleven: â€Å" Our public relations policy is based on attraction rather than promotion; we need always maintain personal anonymity at the level of press, radio, and films.† Tradition Twelve: â€Å" Anonymity is the spiritual foundation of all our traditions, ever reminding us to place principles before personalities.† Bibliography Work Cited Silverstein, Herma. Alcoholism. New York: Franklin Watts, 1990 Wekesser, Carol. Alcoholism. San Diego: Greenhaven Press Inc., 1994 Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services Inc., 1995 â€Å" Alcohol and Alcoholism.† The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986 Word Count: 1414